With. thirty¦ When Constantinople was founded in 330, Christian art in Rome and the East already had a long history. All major cities had their own art schools and local traditions. Constantinople alone was deprived of these traditions. Created by the will of Constantine, it was forced from the very beginning to borrow from outside. There is reason to think that the main source of Constantinople painting of the 4th–5th centuries was the art of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, Ephesus and a number of other Hellenistic cities of the East. Here, by the 5th century, the basic principles of that “Byzantinism” had been developed, which a number of scientists recklessly associate exclusively with Constantinople. In fact, Constantinople found in ready-made form much of what later formed the basis of its own aesthetics. He inherited spiritualistic art with a pronounced dualism, carefully developed iconography that embraced the Old and New Testaments, mature mosaic, fresco and encaustic techniques, which made it possible to record a phenomenon not only in its linear, static aspect, but also in a purely pictorial, impressionistic plane , a rich fund of ornamental motifs, a refined palette and a developed system of monumental decoration. But the role of Constantinople was never reduced to slavish copying of other people's models. Very soon he moved on to critical selection, discarding everything that did not meet his needs. On this path, he gradually moved away from Roman traditions, which were dangerous due to their undisguised sensualism, reflecting the practical spirit of the Western Church. On this same path, he moved away from Syrian traditions, whose rough, expressive realism could not appeal to the refined tastes of metropolitan society. And on this path he joined the classicist traditions of Alexandrian art, which preserved Greek Hellenism in its purest form. Thus, Constantinople became his direct heir, logically continuing the line of his urban development. Overcoming popular influences, he carefully preserved from the past all those forms that were cultivated by the upper classes of late antique society. The spiritualized forms of late antique art were especially valuable to him. From all this complex amalgam of various intersecting currents, Constantinople created its own style, which first appears to us as something holistic in the 6th century, in the era of Justinian.
We do not know what was done in Constantinople in the field of antique painting in the 4th–5th centuries. Here the later mosaic floors in the northern and southern porticos of the peristyle of the Great Imperial Palace 60 come to our aid. Figures of people and animals arranged in the form of freely interpreted friezes are presented on a white background. (Table 6–10). Various episodes are separated from each other by trees, buildings, rocks, personifications (for example, the figure of a river nymph), which involuntarily brings to mind the compositional principles underlying the miniatures of the Vatican Scroll of Joshua. The entire floor mosaic is perceived as a huge carpet filled with decorative motifs. It is framed by a wide border of a succulent, purely antique type of acanthus, between the shoots of which masks, figures of various animals, fruits and flowers can be seen. When comparing the mosaics of the Grand Palace with the mosaics of Italy, France, Africa and Syria, one is struck by the variety and liveliness of the scenes depicted on it: there are various animal fights (lion with elephant, deer with snake, griffin with lizard, leopards with gazelle, wolf with ram, lioness with a wild donkey, an eagle with a snake), hunting hares, wild boars, lions and tigers, a mountain goat peacefully nibbling grass, milking goats, a herd of horses, children herding geese, a young mother sitting with a child on her lap, a fisherman with a fishing rod, Pan with Bacchus on shoulder, moschophorus, woman carrying a jug, circus games (young men roll wheels with sticks, skillfully going around the mark). Most of these images are traditional in nature and are found in the mosaics of the villa in Piazza Armerina in Sicily, as well as in similar mosaics in Antioch, Homs and Apamea. In 1953–1954, new fragments of the same mosaic floor were discovered, which depict two charming genre scenes: boys riding a camel (Table 11) and a mule, throwing its rider and bundles of firewood to the ground. One of the fragments also revealed a walled building with streams of water flowing from the gate. The mosaic of the Grand Palace is made of limestone of various types, marble and smalt (blue, green and yellow). The general range of colors, which is dominated by shades of red, blue, green, yellow, brown and gray, as well as white and black, is dim. The tradition of ancient colorism with its light and transparent halftones is still strongly felt in it.
60 K. Bittel. Archäologische Funde aus der Türkei 1934–1938. - ArchAnz, 54 1939, 182–183 (“Die Grabungen im Gebiet der Kaiserpaläste”); G. Brett. The Mosaic of the Great Palace in Constantinople. - JWarb, V 1942, 34–43; G. Brett, G. Martigny, R. Stevenson. The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors. Being a First Report on the Excavations carried out in Istanbul on behalf of the Walker Trust (The University of St. Andrews). 1935–1938. Oxford 1947, 64–97, pl. 28–56; C. Mango. Autour du Grand Palais de Constantinople. - CahArch, V 1951, 179–186; D. Talbot Rice. Excavations in the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors, - Πεπραγμένα τοῦ IX διεθνοῦς βυζαντινολογιϰοῦ συνεδρίου. I. Ἀθῆναι 1955, 468–473; Grabar. La peinture byzantine, 75–76; D. Talbot Rice. Mosaics of the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors: Last Finds. - ILN, 12 March 1955; Id. Les mosaïques du Grand Palais des empereurs byzantins à Constantinople. - RArts, V 1955, 159–166; D. Talbot Rice. The Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors. Second Report. Edinburgh 1958, 123–160, pl. 42–50 (rec. K. Mango and I. Lavin: ArtB, XLII 1960 1, 67–73); Talbot Rice. Arte di Bisanzio, 55–56, tav. 38–41; Beckwith. Art of Constantinople, 29–30; P. J. Nordhagen. The Mosaics of the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors. - BZ, 56 1963 1, 53–68; D. Talbot Rice. On the Date of the Mosaic Floor of the Great Palace of the Byzantine Emperors at Constantinople. - Χαριστήριον εἰς Ἀ. K. Ὀρλάνδου, I. Ἀθῆναι 1965, 1–5. To date, not a single decisive argument has been given in favor of one or another dating of the floor mosaics of the Grand Palace. If we proceed from the logic of artistic development, then the most likely time for the execution of mosaics should be considered the end of the 5th - beginning of the 6th century. But when applied to Byzantine painting, we always have to take into account the possibility of very late outbreaks of Hellenism, which makes it extremely difficult to resolve the issue that interests us. This is why the dating of the Grand Palace mosaics remains controversial and requires further clarification.
The discovery of the mosaic floor in the peristyle of the Great Palace is of great significance for the history of early Byzantine painting. It indisputably testifies to two things: the presence of its own school in Constantinople and the vitality of the traditions of late antique impressionism on Constantinople soil. Although some of the graphic motifs of this mosaic floor reveal a close relationship with the mosaic floors of Antioch, North Africa and Italy, the quality of its execution is nevertheless incomparable. It amazes not only with the variety of motifs, freedom in conveying the most complex turns and movements of figures and the liveliness of facial expressions, but also with the finest pictorial modeling using small cubes placed with impeccable precision. Although the masters who performed the mosaics were With. thirty
With. 31¦ simple artisans, but they mastered their art so subtly that the figures they depicted seem to have been painted with bold strokes by real artists. For these masters, Hellenism was a living tradition, much more effective than for the rapidly barbarizing West. Apparently, Emperor Constantine, having founded the new capital, brought here the most qualified craftsmen from Rome and major Hellenistic centers, who laid the foundations for the local school. And since Constantinople was an eastern and not a western city, it naturally adopted primarily Hellenism of the eastern type. This, in particular, is indicated by the abundance in the mosaic of purely eastern animals (elephants, camels, lions, tigers, monkeys), which were exotic for the West.
In the absence of solid starting points, it is very difficult to date floor mosaics. They always contain so many craft stamps and traditional motifs, borrowed from widespread collections of samples, that the dating of the same monument often differs by several centuries. Thus, K. Bittel dated the mosaics of the Great Palace to the 4th century, J. Brett - to the second decade of the 5th century, D. Talbot Rice - around 530, K. Mango and I. Lavin - between 565 and 582, P. Nordhagen - to the era of Justinian II (685–695), J. Baxter - 8th century. The most likely time for the emergence of sex seems to be the second half of the 6th century. This is indicated by the general compositional structure of the mosaic, in which the principle of a separate figured plot dominates. The images are presented as separate parts of the frieze, due to which they are perceived as self-contained images scattered across a white background like decorative ornaments. The lack of spatial relationship introduces into the mosaic that element of abstraction that is typical of monuments of both painting and sculpture starting from the second half of the 5th century.
The floor mosaic of the Grand Palace is a chance surviving fragment of the secular art that flourished at the court of the Byzantine emperors. From it one can only get a vague idea of the richness and brilliance of this antique art. Unfortunately, not a single work has yet been discovered from church painting of the 5th century on the soil of Constantinople. The same two monuments that will now be discussed and which are associated with the territory of Greece can hardly be used to characterize Constantinople painting, since they gravitate in their style to a different circle. With. 31
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The Hippodrome of Constantinople (Great Hippodrome or Great Circus) was not only one of the most grandiose buildings in Constantinople, but also the center of the socio-political life of the capital of the empire.
In addition to chariot competitions and various spectacles, the announcement of imperial decrees and other orders of the authorities took place here, and triumphal processions and festivities were organized. Sports and political passions were in full swing here, the “green” and “blue” parties (named after the color of the drivers’ robes) were at enmity with each other, and sometimes popular uprisings broke out, the most famous of which (the “Nika!” uprising) occurred in 532 and barely did not cost the throne to Emperor Justinian.
The monumental stone hippodrome was built in Byzantium under Emperor Septimius Severus in 203 (before that there was a modest wooden hippodrome in its place), then it was rebuilt several times. A large-scale reconstruction of the hippodrome was undertaken by Constantine the Great in 324-330, after the capital of the Roman Empire was transferred from Rome to Constantinople.
In its structure, the hippodrome was a rectangular sandy arena more than 400 meters long and about 120 meters wide, which was surrounded on three sides by Sfenda - spectator stands located in a semicircular amphitheater, shaped like an elongated horseshoe.
The sfenda consisted of 16 (according to other sources - 30) rising rows of marble benches, above which rose a podium - a through covered portico, the roof of which rested on two rows of eight-meter columns topped with Corinthian capitals. The spaces between the columns were decorated with statues taken from all over the empire. On hot or stormy days, a fabric awning was stretched over the stands.
Hippodrome of Constantinople (modern reconstruction, unfortunately, is not very accurate)
The fourth side of the arena was closed by Kathisma - a large building with boxes for dignitaries and an imperial rostrum, which was connected by a covered passage to the nearby Great Imperial Palace. Kathisma was crowned with a bronze Quadriga (four horses), exported from Greece, considered the creation of the great sculptor Lysippos. After the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204, the Quadriga was transported to Venice and installed above the central portal of the Cathedral of San Marco.
Quadriga from the Hippodrome of Constantinople (currently in the Museum of San Marco, and in its place there is a copy)
Under the imperial rostrum, on a special balcony, musicians were located, and even lower there was a gate through which chariots entered the arena.
Relief of the pedestal of the obelisk of Theodosius I with the image of the emperor on the platform of the hippodrome. In his hand he holds a wreath with which the winner of the competition was crowned.
Kathisma. Capital in the form of four pegasi. Parian marble. 203 Istanbul Archaeological Museum.
In the center of the arena there was a low stone dividing barrier (SpIna) 10 meters wide, richly decorated with obelisks, statues and columns.
Ivory diptych depicting chariot races on the hippodrome. The lower part of the diptych depicts a back with an obelisk installed on it.
By the beginning of the reign of Justinian I the Great (527-565), the hippodrome was expanded by adding wooden stands on the site of the portico spans that collapsed during earthquakes. Now it could accommodate up to 60 thousand spectators (according to other estimates: up to 120 thousand spectators).
The Hippodrome of Constantinople amazed eyewitnesses with its size and splendor. There is a well-known description of the hippodrome made by Robert de Clari, a participant in the Fourth Crusade: “... And in another place in the city there was another miracle: near the Lion’s Mouth Palace there was a square called the Emperor’s Playground. And this area was extended in length by one and a half shots from a crossbow, and in width by almost one shot; and around this square there were 30 or 40 steps, where the Greeks climbed to look at the lists; and above these steps there was a very spacious and very beautiful box, where, when the competition was going on, the emperor and empress and other noble men and ladies sat. And when competitions were held, there would be two of them at once, and the emperor and empress would bet on which of the two would win, and everyone who looked at the lists also bet. Along this square there was a wall that was a good 15 feet high and 10 feet wide; and on top of this wall there were figures of men and women, and horses, and bulls, and camels, and bears, and lions, and many other animals, cast from copper. And they were all so well made and so naturally sculpted that neither in pagan countries nor in the Christian world could one find such a skilled craftsman who could imagine and cast the figures so well as these were cast. Once upon a time they usually moved by the power of magic, as if playfully, but now they no longer play; and the French looked at this imperial Game as if it were a miracle when they saw it.”
Fresco of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, depicting the kathisma (imperial box) of the Constantinople Hippodrome
The Hippodrome was badly damaged during the Latin occupation (1204-1261), and after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, the conquerors turned it into a quarry. The once majestic structure was literally wiped off the face of the earth. Currently, the remains of the hippodrome are located at a depth of four meters from the soil level. Only the ruins of the southwestern part of the sfenda are accessible for inspection.
Hippodrome in the 15th century. Engraving from the book "De ludis circensibus" by Onofrio Panvinio (Venice, 1600)
Same. Large size (2000 x 1286)
Hippodrome area in a 16th-century Turkish miniature
The area of the hippodrome in a 19th-century engraving. The Turks called it At-Meydan, which means "Square of Horses"
Of the sculptures and architectural structures that decorated the hippodrome, only the Quadriga (located in Venice), the Obelisk of Theodosius, the Obelisk of Constantine and the Serpentine Column have survived.
The Obelisk of Theodosius is an obelisk of Pharaoh Thutmose III - a pink granite monolith brought by Theodosius I the Great from the Egyptian city of Heliopolis, placed on a massive base of 2 stone blocks decorated with bas-reliefs.
Obelisk of Theodosius
Feodosia Obelisk Base
The Obelisk of Constantine was erected by Constantine VII the Porphyrogenitus (911-959) in honor of his grandfather, Emperor Basil I (866-886). The 25-meter obelisk made of sandstone, lined with sheets of gilded bronze, was also called the “Golden Column” (the bronze sheets of the casing were torn off by the crusaders).
Obelisk of Constantine. Fragment of a drawing from 1575
The Bronze Serpentine Column, depicting coiled snakes, brought from Delphi by Emperor Constantine the Great, was cast in 478 BC. in honor of the Greek victory over the Persians (there is an inscription on it with a list of Greek cities that took part in the Battle of Plataea).
About the Serpent Column, on which the golden tripod once stood, Herodotus says: “When the booty was collected (after the Battle of Plataea), the Hellenes allocated a tenth to the Delphic god (Apollo). From this tithe the golden tripod was made, which stands in Delphi on a three-headed copper snake directly at the altar” (IX, 81).
Serpent Column at Delphi. 5th century BC. Reconstruction
Base of the Serpent Column at Delphi. Current state. Restoration
The Snake Column is the oldest monument in Istanbul. The upper part of the column with snake heads has been lost. A surviving fragment of one of the snake heads is kept in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum.
Serpent Column (in the background is the obelisk of Theodosius)
Proclamation of the Emperor at the Hippodrome. Bulgarian copy of the chronicle of Constantine Manasses. XIV century
Sultan Suleiman I passes through the ruins of the hippodrome. Engraving from 1533.
The image is highly authentic (with the exception of the fantastic figures on the sides). In the center is the Obelisk of Theodosius, to the right of it are the Serpentine Column and the Obelisk of Constantine. In addition, the engraving (on the right) shows unpreserved dedicatory columns and part of the sphenda with a towering portico of the podium (the proportions are somewhat off).
The Great or Holy Palace at Constantinople (Greek: Μέγα Παλάτιον) remained the main residence of the Byzantine emperors for eight hundred years, from 330 to 1081. It was founded by Constantine the Great between the Hippodrome and Hagia Sophia, rebuilt by Justinian and expanded by Theophilus. The emperor's children, born in the Porphyry Hall of the palace, were called porphyry-born.
Palace under Justinian
Justinian began construction of the palace complex shortly after the Nika uprising, during which a significant part of the buildings of the old imperial chambers of Constantine was damaged in a fire. The central part of the sacred chambers was a large square - the Augusteon, stretching from the Church of St. Sophia to the palace. The square was surrounded on four sides by buildings - the Church of St. Sofia in the north, the Baths of Zeuxippus and the Hippodrome in the southwest, the Senate and Magnavra Palace in the east, and the imperial residence in the south. After the fire, the Augusteon was expanded and decorated with white porticoes supported by two rows of columns, the ground was lined with marble. In the square not far from the Golden Column, from which the roads of the empire diverged, a bronze column was erected, topped with an equestrian statue of Justinian. Procopius writes that the emperor was represented with his face turned to the east, with an orb in his left palm and his right hand outstretched “to command the barbarians.” The emperor was dressed in armor, in which Achilles was usually depicted. A portico with six white marble columns and decorated with statues was built in front of the Senate building. In the Baths of Zeuxippus, where Constantine collected a collection of ancient statues, Justinian ordered the restoration of multi-colored marble ornaments that had been damaged in the fire. The imperial residence was rebuilt with a pomp that, according to Procopius, cannot be expressed in words. On the southwestern side, under the porticoes, there were iron doors that led to the vestibule, called the Halka. Entering the doors, visitors walked through a semicircular courtyard into a large hall with a dome, which Justinian rebuilt a second time in 558. The floor was made of colored marble bordering a large circular slab of porphyry. The wall panels were also made of colored marble. Along the top were large mosaic paintings depicting Justinian and Theodora in festive clothes, surrounded by senators, scenes of the Vandal and Italian wars, and the triumph of Belisarius presenting the defeated kings to the emperor. A double-leaf bronze door led from the Halki rotunda to the guardrooms called the porticoes of the scholars, protectors and candidates. These were vast halls that served as quarters for the palace guards, and in addition they included state rooms, one of which contained a large silver cross under the dome. Finally, through a wide alley bordered by columns and cutting through the quarter of the guards, one entered the palace itself, where first of all one entered the large Consistorion. It was a throne room, into which ivory doors draped with silk curtains led on three sides. The walls were decorated with precious metals, the floor was...
The Great Imperial Palace (Sacred Palace) is a palace complex located in the 1st region of Constantinople, southwest of the hippodrome and south of the Church of St. Sophia.
It began to be built in 324 by the Emperor Great (306-337) and was opened on the day of the official founding of the Second Rome, May 11, 330.
Almost until the beginning of the 13th century, i.e. for almost nine hundred years, it was rebuilt and expanded. The maximum expansion occurred under Basil I the Macedonian (867-886), and the largest later erected structure was the New Upper Palace (10th century), united with Vukoleon by a single system of fortifications and becoming a citadel within a citadel.
Initially, it had the shape of an irregular heptagon (the shape of which later, during its expansion, was approximately preserved) bordered in the north by the Augusteon and the baths of Zeuxippus, in the west by the hippodrome, in the south and southeast by the slopes of the hills descending to the Propontid area of the sea walls, and in the east - city blocks. The entire territory was surrounded by walls with numerous towers, including travel towers. The Great Palace was connected to the hippodrome, the kathisma of which, in fact, was its integral part, and to the Church of St. Sophia.
Later, the role of its southern and southwestern walls began to be played by city sea walls.
The complex was an autonomous area of the city, intended for the residence of the emperor with his family, the palace garrison and service personnel.
The interior space was occupied by palaces, including: Halka (330), Sigma (between 823 and 843), Daphne (330), Trullo (IV century), Triconkh (between 829-841) , Bukoleon (between 419 and 450), New Upper Palace (before 967), Lawsiak (before 812), Skyla (330), Kamil, Mesopat and Musik (all three between 829-841 .), Eros (330), Justinian (694), Kenurgius, Pentakuvikl and Orel (all between 866 and 885); churches - St. Stephen (330), St. Theodore Tyrone (5th century), St. Agathia (IV century), St. Agathonica, which became part of the palace complex under Vasily I (330), Theotokos (Pharos) (IV century), St. Apostles (IV century), Archangel Michael (between 829 and 841), New Church (between 866 and 885), St. Elijah the Prophet (before 865), St. Peter; chapels, incl. St. Paul (between 866-885), St. Anne, palace (between 867 and 911), St. Clement (between 866 and 885) and others; gardens, the largest of which is Mesokipios (between 866 and 885), open artificial ponds and cisterns; outbuildings, service buildings and barracks. There were special courtyards for communication with representatives of hippodrome parties. Very often a new building or several new halls were added to an earlier palace. The names of the palace buildings could come from the names of the halls located in them (Daphne); or the name of the main hall in the palaces was named after the buildings themselves (Sigma).
In addition, the complex had: prisons - Khalka, Elephant, Numer and Vukoleon; Tsikanistr - hippodrome for polo - horse-drawn ball games; several baths; their own workshops; arsenal (Eros); pier (rock) Vukoleon and library.
On the territory of the complex was located Pharos - the city lighthouse (between 566 and 577), under Emperor Michael III (840-867) which began to serve as the final station of the light telegraph. For convenience, buildings and structures were connected by covered galleries or were surrounded by porticos. There were running water and sewerage systems with water for flushing sewage.
Palace buildings, churches, chapels, galleries and porticos, as well as the arches of a number of passage gates, were decorated with amazing mosaics, paintings, marble and colored stone. Stained glass, bronze, silver and gold were widely used in the interiors. The roofs of many buildings were covered with lead and gilded bronze. There were numerous intricate fountains in the gardens and courtyards. Exotic plant species were planted and exotic bird species were bred. In addition to open reservoirs, there were small ponds made of mercury in which replicas of waterfowl swam. The Grand Palace complex was filled with statues brought and brought from all over the empire.
The capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 marked the beginning of the end of the Great Palace: the palace churches and chapels were plundered; metal statues, decorative elements and roofing were melted down; floor slabs, cladding and columns were broken out and sold to the West.
In 1261, after the liberation of the city from the occupiers, the complex, like the whole of Constantinople, presented a depressing sight. In practice, except for a few restored churches and buildings, the Grand Palace was not restored until the capture of the city by the Turks.
After the fall of the empire in 1453, the surviving churches on its territory were converted into mosques. The Turks also used some sections of its walls during the construction of Topkapi, the residence of the Sultan.
Currently, the territory of the Grand Imperial Palace complex contains several former churches in varying degrees of preservation, several ruins and a Museum of mosaics discovered during a few excavations, as well as isolated populations of exotic birds.
